What Does It Mean to Experience Live Music and Art

Introduction

Music is a universal social phenomenon that has traditionally been experienced in a live context (Nettl and Russell, 1998; Freeman, 2000). The advent of recording technology in the late 19th century heralded a cultural shift in the way that people experienced music, allowing for the convenience of private, in-abode consumption (Moreau, 2013). While technology has provided a depression-cost, convenient method for music listening, many people continue to attend live concerts, sometimes at great expense in uncomfortable settings (Baxter-Moore and Kitts, 2016; Brown and Knox, 2017). What is it most the experience that motivates listeners to attend live concerts? A survey found that listeners' strongest musical experiences often took identify at live events (Lamont, 2011). Ii factors that likely contribute critically to the enjoyment of live concerts are (1) people like the social connexion of experiencing music with other people (Burland and Pitts, 2014; Brown and Knox, 2017) and (2) people similar the feeling of existence connected to the performers, past existence in the same physical space together, with the potential for performers to directly appoint the audience (Silverberg et al., 2013; Leante, 2016), and by experiencing a unique alive performance every bit it unfolds over time (Brownish and Knox, 2017). Every alive functioning is idiosyncratic such that events unfold organically and unpredictably, unlike when listening to a recording in which there is no possibility for an audience to directly affect what a performer has already created.

The social effects of experiencing music with other people have been studied to a greater extent than the furnishings of experiencing a live performance (Freeman, 2000; Egermann et al., 2011; Rennung and Goritz, 2016; Stupacher et al., 2017). Here we examined the furnishings of alive performance while decision-making for the social setting. Nosotros compared people who listened to a live performance (specifically, a record release political party by Canadian stone star Ian Fletcher Thornley's 2015 solo album Secrets) to people who listened in a group in the same venue without live performers to the album recordings of the same songs from Secrets. Recently, research on audiences of alive performances has gained interest (Egermann et al., 2011; Burland and Pitts, 2014; Danielsen and Helseth, 2016; Bradby, 2017; Brown and Knox, 2017), in role because audiences provide an ecologically valid setting for examining grouping dynamics. Audience experience has been examined with a variety of techniques including existent-time subjective responses (McAdams, 2004; Stevens et al., 2009, 2014; Egermann et al., 2013), social networking (Deller, 2011), video analysis (Chan et al., 2013; Silverberg et al., 2013; Stevens et al., 2014; Leante, 2016; Theodorou et al., 2016) and physiological measurement (Fancourt and Williamon, 2016; Bernardi et al., 2017). It is of import to understand effects of the concert setting considering attendance may increase health: attention a musical performance was constitute to reduce stress hormones in audience members (Fancourt and Williamon, 2016) and a 10-yr longitudinal study suggested that engagement in cultural events, including concerts, may protect against age-related cognitive decline (Fancourt and Steptoe, 2018).

Enjoying music with other listeners may contribute powerfully to the concert experience. Observers of concert audiences judged synchronously moving listeners as experiencing greater rapport and like psychological states compared to those moving asynchronously (Lakens and Stel, 2011). Afterwards adults move in synchrony, even when unaware of their synchronised movements, they think more well-nigh each other, express liking each other more, and testify greater levels of trust and cooperation compared to afterwards moving asynchronously (Hove and Risen, 2009; Wiltermuth and Heath, 2009; Valdesolo et al., 2010; Valdesolo and DeSteno, 2011; Launay et al., 2013; Woolhouse et al., 2016). More broadly, periodic movements and physiological rhythms, such as breathing and center charge per unit, tend to synchronise unconsciously amongst people in a grouping (Richardson et al., 2007; van Ulzen et al., 2008; Morris, 2010; Codrons et al., 2014; Miyata et al., 2018).

Entrainment is defined as the ability to synchronise movements with an external auditory stimulus, in this case the timing regularities of music (Phillips-Argent and Keller, 2012). In humans, synchronisation is supported past connections betwixt auditory and motor cortices (Sakai et al., 1999; Janata and Grafton, 2003; Grahn and Brett, 2007; Zatorre et al., 2007; Fujioka et al., 2012) and manifests as oscillatory activity measured in EEG and MEG (Schroeder and Lakatos, 2009; Arnal and Giraud, 2012; Fujioka et al., 2012, 2015; Cravo et al., 2013; Calderone et al., 2014; Cirelli et al., 2014a; Chang et al., 2018a). Interestingly, few non-human species entrain movements to auditory regularities (Merker et al., 2009; Patel et al., 2009; Schachner et al., 2009). The connection betwixt movement synchronisation and social-emotional date may have deep evolutionary roots in humans. Infants are non still able to coordinate their movements to entrain to a musical beat, although they exercise move faster to music with a faster compared to slower tempo (Zentner and Eerola, 2010). Yet if an infant equally immature as xiv months is bounced to music synchronously with the movements of another adult, the infant is more likely to help that adult (e.k., to pick up "accidentally" dropped objects needed to complete a task) compared to if an infant is bounced asynchronously with the adult (Cirelli et al., 2014c). Later piece of work revealed that this increased helpfulness extends to friends of the experimenter who bounced with them (Cirelli et al., 2016). In another written report, infants who were bounced to music with stuffed animals, choose animals that bounced synchronously with them over animals that bounced asynchronously. These studies signal that synchronisation of move with others during music listening is a cue that even infants use in the development of social-emotional bonds and altruistic behaviours (Trainor and Cirelli, 2015; Cirelli et al., 2018).

Nosotros examined the effect of live music while controlling for the furnishings of being with others in an audience. Little research has examined differences between live and recorded performances by manipulating the presence and absence of the performer. Shoda et al. (2016) reported that the heartbeats of audience members at a live performance exhibited greater entrainment with the musical rhythm than those of listeners at a pre-recorded performance. Performer presence was too found to produce greater relaxation in audition members compared to those listening to a recording (Shoda et al., 2016). Contemporary popular performers frequently play variations of recorded works at live performances (Shoda and Adachi, 2015), suggesting a novelty cistron for listeners. Dark-brown and Knox (2017) constitute that audience members consider this musical novelty as an of import motivator for concert attendance. Live concerts as well enable audition members to feel an in-person relationship with the performer. Performers can besides be influenced by the presence of an audience, and live performances tin be acoustically and energetically different than those recorded in the studio (Zajonc, 1965; Yoshie et al., 2016; Bradby, 2017).

We used head movement responses every bit our main measure of audience experience for several reasons. Moving to the shell during music listening is culturally ubiquitous, with collective motility a hallmark of the contemporary concert experience (Zatorre et al., 2007; Madison et al., 2011; Janata et al., 2012; Davies et al., 2013; Madison and Sioros, 2014; Stupacher et al., 2017). Individuals use a range of movements when listening to music, from foot tapping to head nodding, to whole body motion (Leman and Godøy, 2010). Head movements are particularly relevant as they are a reliable indicator of rhythmic entrainment (Toiviainen et al., 2010; Burger et al., 2013), reveal communication patterns between performers (Chang et al., 2017), reveal directional and emotional communication patterns (Chang et al., unpublished), and fifty-fifty predict who will "match" during speed dating (Chang et al., 2018b). Movement of the head alone—only not legs alone—affects how ambiguous auditorily-presented rhythms are interpreted (Phillips-Silver and Trainor, 2008). This interaction between head movement and auditory perception probable involves the vestibular organization located in the inner ear which processes proprioceptive information about caput movements (Trainor et al., 2009). Caput movements also encode emotional information (Livingstone and Palmer, 2016; Chang et al., unpublished), and may function as a form of non-exact communication in a noisy environment (Harrigan et al., 2008). Caput movements provide information well-nigh the nature of an emotion being communicated (Ekman and Friesen, 1967; Witkower and Tracy, 2018). Furthermore, movement smoothness (which increases with motility speed) is greater when communicating joy than a neutral emotion or sadness (Kang and Gross, 2016). Horizontal head movements and forward velocity communicate happiness even without the context provided by facial expression or vocal content (Livingstone and Palmer, 2016). Additionally, movement vigour (average speed) and movement distance take been shown to convey the intensity of emotions (Atkinson et al., 2004). Leow et al. (2015) found that, even when asked to walk at the same tempo, participants walked more vigorously (faster) to more familiar music. One study plant that during music listening, greater caput speed was correlated with increased spectral flux in low frequencies (associated with greater presence of kick drum and bass guitar) and in high frequencies (associated with hi-hat and cymbals or liveliness of a rhythm), as well as with greater percussiveness, merely caput speed was not found to be related to tempo (Burger et al., 2013).

In summary, at that place are many possible factors contributing to movement during music listening including biological imperatives, emotions, and the presence of others. These factors have been studied in highly controlled laboratory settings only have still to exist explored in existent-world music listening contexts. In the present written report, nosotros were interested in how a live concert afflicted audience caput movements as an index of engagement, specifically, by comparing the movements of concertgoers who experienced a alive operation versus a recorded version of the aforementioned songs. We were particularly interested in the measure out of vigour. Following previous researchers, we operationally defined motility vigour every bit the average speed of movement over a time interval, regardless of direction (specifically, head distance travelled within a song divided by the total length of the song, giving a value in millimetres per 2d) (Atkinson et al., 2004; Mazzoni et al., 2007; Zentner and Eerola, 2010). We were besides interested in how head movements might be influenced by audience members' prior admiration for the performers (i.e., their Listener-preference). People are motivated to attend music concerts when they hold a strong preference for the musicians' piece of work. Musical preferences for genres and artists as well play a function in defining social affiliations, specially during adolescence, where they appear to function equally a 'badge of identity' within a social grouping (Northward and Hargreaves, 1999; Mulder et al., 2010). 'Fans' of a particular performer would be expected to enjoy musical performances by that performer, in office because the familiarity gained from repeated exposure to recordings of their music would be expected to increase enjoyment of the performer's music in full general (Schellenberg et al., 2008; van den Bosch et al., 2013). To examine the effect of audition members' prior preferences for the band, we recruited fans of the performer Ian Fletcher Thornley, along with naïve listeners who expressed no item preference for the performer. Since the album had not nonetheless been released prior to the concerts, the furnishings of song familiarity were controlled while examining differences betwixt fans and neutral listeners every bit neither group had heard the songs prior to the concerts.

In sum, we examined the furnishings of alive versus pre-recorded music and fan status on audience date with the music through head movements. Self-reported Fans and Neutral-preference listeners were separately recruited, and randomly assigned to attend ane of two concerts. The concerts served every bit the record release result for Canadian rock star Ian Fletcher Thornley'due south 2015 solo anthology Secrets, featuring new unreleased music. In the Live concert, audience members experienced a live performance by the musicians, while in the Album-playback concert, listeners heard an audio recording of the same songs from the Secrets album. Both concerts were held in the LIVELab, a 106-seat performance hall equipped with a 25-camera optical motion capture system. Caput movements of participants were recorded simultaneously throughout each of the two concerts (Supplementary Effigy S1). Two aspects of head motion were examined: (1) vigour and (two) entrainment to the crush of the music. We hypothesised that head movements would exist faster and better entrained when audiences experienced a live concert compared to a pre-recorded version of the music. We further hypothesised that fans of the performer would exhibit faster movement, and entrain better to the rhythm, compared to neutral listeners.

Materials and Methods

Participants

Fans of the performer were recruited through contests advertised in social media (n = 39). Neutral-listeners who expressed no specific preference for Ian Fletcher Thornley (n = 21) were recruited for form credit through McMaster Academy's online research portal (due north = 3), social media and flyers circulated beyond campus and in music stores (n = 18). Cocky-asserted Fan-status was verified via a follow-up questionnaire. Participants' demographics and status assignments are described in Table 1. Prior to analysis, 5 participants were excluded due to: cocky-reported aberrant hearing (n = i from Live/Neutral-listener status), movement restrictions (n = 1 from Album-playback/Fan condition), or having previously heard songs from the anthology (northward = 3; one from Album-playback/Fan, 2 from Live/Fan weather). Six participants who did not respond to a follow-up survey confirming fan-status were further excluded: ane from Album playback/Fan, 2 from Album-playback/Neutral-listener, 2 from Live/Fan, 1 from Live/Neutral-listener weather. The final sample consisted of 32 Fans and 17 Neutral-listeners. The McMaster University Inquiry Ideals Board approved all procedures.

Table 1. Participant demographics.

Stimuli and Apparatus

Ian Fletcher Thornley'southward record release party concert was the setting for this study. Participants listened to eight songs from Thornley's new studio anthology Secrets on the day of its official release. This release reached a top position of ix on the Canadian iTunes sales charts on October 30th, 2015. The first seven songs were novel to all included participants. The final song in the concert, "Blown Wide Open," was a cover version of a previous song that was familiar to fans¹. The eight songs were presented in the following club in both conditions: (1) "Merely to Know I Can"; (two) "How Long"; (three) "Fool"; (iv) "Elouise"; (5) "Frozen Pond"; (6) "Experience"; (7) "Secrets"; and (8) reinterpretation of "Blown Wide Open". These stimuli are hereafter referred to as Songs ane through 8, respectively.

Both the Alive and Album-playback concerts took place in the LIVELab². The LIVELab is a research facility with a 106-seat performance hall designed for the study of man interaction in a diverseness of ecologically valid contexts, including music, dance and pedagogy. In both Live and Album-playback concerts, motion-recorded Fans and Neutral-listeners were seated interspersed in the front and heart of the audition across four rows with an boilerplate of 8 people per row. Audio for both concerts was presented over a high-quality Meyer Sound half dozen aqueduct business firm PA system (Left/Correct Main Speakers, Meyer UPJ, Left/Right Front Fill up, Meyer UP4, Left/Right Subwoofer, Meyer 500-HP). Reverberation was added to each instrument in the Live Concert via a Digico SD9 sound mixer. A sound technician manipulated volume and reverberation throughout the alive concert as it would be at a professional person alive show. For the Live Concert condition, Thornley (vocals and electric guitar) and his ring (electric bass, drums, and cigar box guitar) performed renditions of the 8 songs in the same guild as they were presented in the Anthology-playback concert condition. Given that it was a live performance, in that location were minor variations in tempo and organization between the stimuli at the Live compared to Album-playback Concerts, as would be expected in any live performance of a recorded work (see Supplementary Table S1 in the Supplementary Cloth for a comparison of the tempi of the pre-recorded and live songs). Coloured phase lights helped create the concert experience. Videos depicting a diverseness of neuroscience-themed phenomena played backside the performers on the stage video wall (3 × three assortment of Mitsubishi LM55S 55″ monitors) during the Live concert. In song half-dozen, "Experience," a video delineation of a previous recording of Thornley'southward neural responses when listening to the recording of his own song "Feel" were imaged from fMRI and EEG data. Referred to as "Lightning Encephalon," the 5-min video can exist viewed online^three.

In the Album-playback concert, a photo of the Secrets anthology artwork was displayed on the phase video wall and the stage was dimly lit with coloured lights. The stage setup was identical for the 2 conditions; all of the instruments were in identify and ready for performance. During Song half dozen the video depiction of Thornley's neural responses was displayed as in the Alive concert. See Supplementary Table S1 for the tempi of the recorded and alive songs.

Design and Process

The experimental design was a ii × two × 7 with between-subjects factors Concert-condition (Live, Album-playback) and Listener-preference (Fan, Neutral-listener) and within-discipline cistron Vocal (1, 2, 3, four, five, 6, and 7). The eighth song was analysed separately with only the betwixt-subjects factors since it was familiar to Fans.

Fans and Neutral-listeners were randomly assigned to the Live or Album-playback conditions. In both cases participants were greeted at the entrance, filled out a consent form, and were fitted with a motion-capture cap. The caps did not restrict listener movement in any manner. Participants were ushered into the theatre and to their seat. Once seated, additional audience members who did not participate in the study were so admitted to the theatre. Two researchers thanked the participants for their attendance and introduced the concert. Participants were instructed to do their best to forget that they were wearing caps and to enjoy the concert as they normally would. They were given no further instructions and were not encouraged to motion in any particular mode. Participants then completed a questionnaire on their familiarity with the performers, their current country of arousal and happiness, and their musical expertise (encounter Appendix S1 in Supplementary Cloth). A follow-up questionnaire at the end of the concert asked the aforementioned questions regarding listener arousal and happiness.

Both concerts (Alive, Album-playback) took identify on the aforementioned day, with the Anthology-playback concert in the afternoon and the Live concert in the evening. During the Live concert, Thornley occasionally spoke to the audience between songs as performers would at a typical concert. Head movements between songs were not analysed. At the end of the Album-playback status, Thornley and his band played a live vocal to avoid disappointing fans; head motility during this song was non analysed. A second questionnaire was sent to participants after the experiment to collect participant demographic information including age, sex activity, detailed music and dance experience and preferences.

Data Recording and Analysis

An audio recording of the alive performance was recorded for later analysis. A passive optical motion capture organization (24 Oqus 5+ cameras and an Oqus 210c video camera, Qualisys) recorded the caput movements of participants at 90 Hz. Four retroreflective markers (10 mm) were placed on felt caps worn past the participants, forming a rigid body. One marker was placed on the front of the head, 1 on top of the caput, and i on each temple.

Move capture data were cleaned and labelled using the Qualisys Track Managing director, and so exported to MATLAB (The MathWorks Inc., 2015) for assay with the motion capture toolbox (Burger and Toiviainen, 2013). Motion data were gap-filled using linear interpolation, then low-pass filtered at 6 Hz to remove jitter. The positions of the 4 caput markers were averaged to produce a single, stable representation of participant head centre (Supplementary Effigy S1). Data were then normalised and segmented into songs. After grooming, two measures of participant head motion were generated.

Move Vigour

The boilerplate movement speed of each participant in mm/south was calculated to provide a representation of movement vigour (Mazzoni et al., 2007; Zentner and Eerola, 2010; Leow et al., 2014). The speed of participants' movements was estimated by taking the beginning derivative of the motility signal (differences in position between adjacent frames). Speed trajectories were then smoothed using a 2d-club lowpass Butterworth filtre with a normalised depression-pass frequency of 0.2π radians per sample. At a sampling frequency of 90 Hz, this equated to a 9 Hz low-pass filtre. Movement vigour is conceptually contained of synchronisation; a participant could remain in perfect synchrony to a given tempo and still move with more or less vigour (east.g., by increasing or decreasing the distance they moved their head), and a participant could also remain completely unsynchronised and even so movement with more or less vigour.

Degree of Entrainment

The caste of entrainment was divers as how often participants entrained their movements to the beat of each vocal. Movement periodicities were extracted with a windowed autocorrelation performed on listeners head-centre motion trajectories, with window size of ten due south, hop size of 5 southward, and lags ranging from 0 to 2 s using mcwindow and mcperiod functions from the Mocap Toolbox (Eerola et al., 2006; Burger and Toiviainen, 2013). The tempi of the songs from both the Live and Album-playback concerts were adamant by two musically trained raters (first and third authors, n = 9 and n = 15 years of formal grooming, respectively) who tapped along to the crush of each song while listening to the recordings of the anthology and the Alive concert using a metronome application (Metronome Beats, Stonekick©2015). The boilerplate inter-trounce interval period was calculated from the song tempo, and this period was used to calculate the flow at the quarter, half, and whole note levels of the musical metrical hierarchy for each song at which participants could have entrained. The participants' caput movement period at each window, obtained from the autocorrelation assay, was compared to the three possible periods of each song. If the participant'southward period of motion was inside 5% of i of these crush periods, and so that window was added to a count of the number of windows demonstrating entrainment. The measure of degree of entrainment was defined as the number of windows with entrainment divided by the full number of possible windows, to give the proportion of entrainment, which could range betwixt 0.0 (no entrainment) and 1.0 (perfect entrainment). Bodily measured proportions ranged from 0.0 to 0.58 depending on the participant and song. Our overall grand mean entrainment proportion of 0.081 was smaller, but of similar magnitude, to that found by Burger et al. (2014) who showed menstruation-locking proportions less than 0.3 (summing tactus divisions and excluding inferior-superior movement, which our seated participants were not complimentary to engage in). Smaller values would be expected in our case, given that for the Burger et al. (2014) experiment participants were continuing and specifically asked to move to the music, whereas in the nowadays study participants were seated and were not given whatsoever instructions regarding motion.

Results

Analyses of the First Seven Unfamiliar Songs

Movement vigour and degree of entrainment were analysed with repeated measures ANOVAs, with betwixt-subjects factors Concert-status (Alive, Anthology-playback) and Listener-preference (Fan, Neutral-listener), and within-subjects gene Song (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, half-dozen, and 7). When Mauchly'southward test indicated that sphericity was violated, Greenhouse-Geisser's corrections were applied. Effect sizes are reported with partial eta-squared values, means are accompanied by a variance measure of one standard error of the hateful (SEM). Pairwise comparisons were adjusted using Bonferroni correction. Statistical tests were conducted in SPSS 2013 v20.0.0. Experiment-wise corrections were non implemented on the reported values, simply below we note the 2 cases in which such a correction would touch on interpretation of an upshot as significant.

Concert-Status

There was a main effect of Concert-status for vigour, but non for entrainment, F(ane,45) = 15.783, p < 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{ii}}$ = 0.260 and F(1,45) = 1.569, p = 0.217, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{ii}}$ = 0.034, respectively. Participants moved more vigorously in the Live concert (Thou = xv.559, SEM = 1.397) than the Album-playback concert (1000 = 7.644, SEM = i.421) status. These results indicate that the Live concert increased vigour but not necessarily the caste of entrainment of head movements. The interaction between Concert-status and Listener-preference was not pregnant for either vigour or entrainment.

Listener-Preference

As predicted, there was a chief effect of Listener-preference for both vigour and entrainment, F(1,45) = 12.871, p = 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{two}}$ = 0.222, and F(i,45) = iv.197, p = 0.046, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.085, respectively. (Notation that the outcome of Listener-preference on entrainment is no longer significant if experiment-wise Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons is implemented). Fans (Chiliad = 15.175, SEM = 1.174) moved faster than Neutral-listeners (M = 8.027, SEM = 1.610) and Fans (G = 0.074, SEM = 0.007) showed a higher degree of entrainment than Neutral-listeners (M = 0.050, SEM = 0.01). These results indicate that Listener-preference affected both vigour and entrainment of caput movements. The interaction between Concert-condition and Listener-preference was not significant for either vigour or entrainment.

Song

In improver to the primary effects produced by the betwixt-subjects variables, there was a master effect of Vocal for both vigour and entrainment, F(4.439,199.768) = nine.626, p < 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.176 and F(3.254,146.414) = 19.022, p < 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.297, respectively. This indicates substantial differences betwixt songs in their power to produce both fast and entrained movement, probable due to intrinsic properties of the songs, such as tempo (see Figures 1, 2; song tempi are provided in Supplementary Table S1 in the Supplementary Material). Interestingly, songs producing the fastest movement were not necessarily the aforementioned songs that produced maximal entrainment, indicating the possibility of some level of independence between these two measures. An acoustic analysis of the songs from both performances is underway as a separate paper in which we plan to relate head movements to characteristics such equally Danceability, Energy, Instrumentalness, Liveness, and Valence of individual songs.

Figure i. Vigour of head movements across songs. The distance travelled within a vocal was divided by the total length of the vocal, giving a value in millimetres per second. Fans moved with greater vigour than Neutral-listeners for every song and those in the Alive Concert condition moved with greater vigour than those in the Album-playback Concert status for every song. Vigour varied amongst songs, and was qualified depending on Concert-condition (Live, Album-playback). The songs were: (1) "Simply to Know I Can"; (2) "How Long"; (three) "Fool"; (4) "Elouise"; (5) "Frozen Pond"; (6) "Feel"; (vii) "Secrets"; and (viii) reinterpretation of "Blown Wide Open." The violin plots show the same parameters as a standard box plot (range, interquartile range and median) too every bit a kernel density plot that estimates the continuous distribution of the data.

Figure ii. Proportion of movement entrainment across songs. Fans generally showed a higher degree of entrainment to the tempo of the music than Neutral-listeners. Still, there was variation among songs, which interacted with Concert-status. The songs were: (i) "Just to Know I Can"; (2) "How Long"; (3) "Fool"; (4) "Elouise"; (5) "Frozen Swimming"; (6) "Feel"; (7) "Secrets"; and (viii) reinterpretation of "Blown Wide Open." The violin plots bear witness the same parameters as a standard box plot (range, interquartile range and median) as well every bit a kernel density plot that estimates the continuous distribution of the data.

In that location was likewise an interaction between song and Listener-preference for both vigour and entrainment, F(4.439,199.768) = 2.428, p = 0.003, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{ii}}$ = 0.082, and F(three.254,146.414) = 3.010, p = 0.029, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.063, respectively. This interaction indicates that Fans and Neutral-listeners reacted differently to different songs (It should exist noted that the interaction between song and Listener-preference on entrainment is no longer significant if experiment-wise Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons is implemented).

Analyses of the 8th Song

The terminal vocal ("Blown Wide Open," released in 1997) was analysed separately considering it was familiar to Thornley's fans, having been one of the virtually famous songs from his previous band Big Wreck. This provides a preliminary exploration of how familiarity can promote movement.

Concert-Condition

At that place was a main effect of Concert-condition on vigour, F(1,45) = 16.929, p < 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.273. Movement was more vigorous in the Live concert (M = 20.32 mm/southward, SEM = two.003) than Album-playback concert (Grand = 8.56 mm/s, SEM = 2.037) condition. There was also a primary issue on entrainment, F(1,45) = 11.917, p = 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{ii}}$ = 0.209. The degree of entrainment was higher in the Alive concert (M = 0.235, SEM = 0.029) than Anthology-playback concert (M = 0.091, SEM = 0.030) condition.

Listener-Preference

For Listener-preference, there was a main effect on vigour, F(1,45) = xiv.494, p < 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.244. Fans (1000 = xix.88 mm/s, SEM = 1.683) moved faster than Neutral-listeners (One thousand = ix.00 mm/southward, SEM = ii.308). In that location was also a main effect on entrainment, F(1,45) = 13.630, p = 0.001, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\mathrm{p}}^{\mathrm{2}}$ = 0.232. Fans (M = 0.24, SEM = 0.025) entrained to a greater degree than Neutral-listeners (M = 0.086, SEM = 0.034). The interaction between Concert-condition and Listener-preference was non pregnant.

Musicians Versus Non-musicians

Using the self-reported measures of music experience, participants were categorised as musicians (N = 25; mean years of training = 11.7; range = 1–38) or non-musicians with no musical training (N = 24). Independent-samples t-tests were performed for vigour for the hateful of Songs 1–7, t(47) = 0.6, p = 0.58, vigour for Song eight, t(47) = 0.4, p = 0.68, entrainment for the hateful of Songs 1–7, t(47) = 0.5, p = 0.62, and entrainment for Vocal eight, t(47) = 0.eight, p = 0.45. There were no pregnant differences on whatsoever of these measures.

Discussion

The question of why people enjoy attending live concerts, when the same music can be experienced more easily and for less money at dwelling, likely involves 2 aspects: the social sharing of the experience in a group of people; and "live" aspects, including connecting with the artists and experiencing the potential for spontaneity and unpredictability of live music equally information technology unfolds over time, compared to a pre-recorded and unchanging version on a recording that a fan might become familiar with after repeated listening. In our study, we examined primarily the 2nd aspect, comparing listening to a recording of a set of songs from Ian Fletcher Thornley's 2015 album Secrets to listening to a live performance of those songs, while keeping the social aspect largely the aforementioned: both the Alive and Anthology-playback concerts were experienced in the context of an audience in the same LIVELab venue. In the case of this study, audiences were not familiar with recorded songs, but nonetheless may have reacted to the knowledge that the music in the Live condition was unfolding in a unique style that would never be repeated exactly. Necessarily, the visual stimulation differed between the two conditions because of the presence of the live performers. We feel that this is not necessarily a confound—a live operation requires the presence of performers—but future studies might incorporate some visual stimulation that tries to ameliorate equate the two conditions, for example, by showing a video of the live performance. We also examined how being a fan of the musical group affected these experiences by comparing self-reported Fans and Neutral-listeners randomly assigned to the Live and Anthology-playback concert atmospheric condition. We focused on caput movements, using motion capture to extract the vigour and degree of entrainment of caput movements to the beat of music (Toiviainen et al., 2010; Burger et al., 2013).

We found that for both Fans and Neutral-listeners, caput movements were more vigorous in the Live than the Album-playback concert, but Concert-status did non touch degree of entrainment to the trounce. On the other hand, beyond both concert conditions, Fans moved their heads more vigorously and with better entrainment to the beat compared to Neutral-listeners. The greater degree of entrainment to the beat out in general in Fans probable reflects their greater familiarity with the artist'due south musical fashion. The greater vigour of head movements across groups at the Live compared to Anthology-playback concert probable represents greater arousal, increased anticipation, and increased connection with the artists and their music during the live concert (Mazzoni et al., 2007; Leow et al., 2014). Amount of musical training varied beyond audience members, but there were no differences betwixt musicians and non-musicians in either motility vigour or synchronisation to the beat. Similarly, Bernardi et al. (2017) reported that musical preparation did not touch on the degree of synchronisation of autonomic responses to the beat of music experienced in a grouping setting. Together, these results advise that entrainment responses in audiences are independent of musical preparation.

Nosotros controlled for vocal familiarity across Fans and Neutral-listeners by using songs that had non yet been publicly released (the start 7 songs of the concerts). The eighth song, "Blown Broad Open up," on the other manus, was certainly familiar to Fans, and may take been familiar to some Neutral-listeners equally its original rendition had accomplished double platinum sales in Canada in the late 1990s. Interestingly, when the songs were non familiar, at that place was no deviation in caste of entrainment to the music across the Live and Anthology-playback concerts. Notwithstanding, for the eighth vocal that was familiar at least to Fans, head movement entrainment was greater during the Live than Album-playback concert. This suggests that while the vigour of head movements is affected by whether the music is live or pre-recorded regardless of familiarity, familiarity with the music may foster greater entrainment to the beat during live compared to recorded contexts.

Vigour of head movements and caste of entrainment differed across songs. Further, there were interactions for both measures betwixt Songs and Listener-preference, indicating that Fans and Neutral-listeners reacted differently to different songs. This suggests that some songs might excite existing fans differently than naïve listeners, which might inform record company promotion decisions. Concerts are becoming increasingly important for the music industry as the prevalence of piracy results in reduced acquirement from album recordings (Frith, 2007; Papies and van Heerde, 2017). Interestingly, the majority of audition members report that cost does non influence their decisions to attend concerts (Brownish and Knox, 2017). In general, research on audition development and retention could be important for sustaining the multi-billion dollar music industry (O'Reilly et al., 2014; Papies and van Heerde, 2017).

Music compels united states to motion, the likely result of connections betwixt auditory and motor areas of the brain (Sakai et al., 1999; Janata and Grafton, 2003; Grahn and Brett, 2007; Zatorre et al., 2007; Grahn and Rowe, 2009; Janata et al., 2012), whose communication during rhythm and beat prediction can be measured in neural oscillations (Fujioka et al., 2012). Certain characteristics of music lead to increased entrainment to music and compulsion of movement, such as crush predictability and rhythmic complexity (Fitch, 2016), the density of events between beats (Madison et al., 2011), moderate levels of syncopation (Witek et al., 2014; Fitch, 2016), and possibly micro-timing deviations (cf. Madison et al., 2011; Davies et al., 2013; Stupacher et al., 2013; Kilchenmann and Senn, 2015). The present study demonstrates that in addition to acoustic characteristics of music, environmental and personal factors influence move to music besides. Specifically, familiarity with the performer and musical fashion (Listener-preference) led to increased movement and entrainment, while the live operation (Concert-status) led to a significant increase in movement vigour. Because synchronous movement can lead to prosociality (Hove and Risen, 2009; Wiltermuth and Heath, 2009; Valdesolo et al., 2010; Valdesolo and DeSteno, 2011; Launay et al., 2013; Cirelli et al., 2014b; Trainor and Cirelli, 2015; Rennung and Goritz, 2016; Woolhouse et al., 2016), and because entrainment to music was fostered more by Listener-preference than Concert-status, it is possible that personal factors are more important than ecology factors for generating synchronous movement and subsequent prosociality.

This study adds to the fledgling literature examining music listening in concert settings (Egermann et al., 2011; Shoda and Adachi, 2012, 2015, 2016; Fancourt and Williamon, 2016; Shoda et al., 2016). It provides unique insight into how live music is experienced in ecologically valid conditions, and how that feel is expressed through body movement. Many questions that remain could be addressed in future research in the LIVELab, such every bit how individual differences in personality touch live concert experiences, how individuals in a concert setting are affected by the movements of those around them, the effects of dissimilar musical characteristics (due east.g., tempo, instrumentation, presence of improvisation, genre), whether synchronous movements in a concert setting leads to increased prosociality and bonding, and how performers are affected by audiences.

Data Availability

The raw information supporting the conclusions of this manuscript volition be fabricated bachelor on https://zenodo.org/ (search for 'LIVELab) by the authors, without undue reservation, to any qualified researcher.

Ethics Statement

This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the Canadian Tri-Council Policy Statement: Upstanding Conduct for Research Involving Humans (T), with written informed consent from all subjects. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. The protocol was approved by the McMaster Academy Enquiry Ideals Lath.

Author Contributions

DS involved in data collection and analyses, and the preparation and review of the manuscript. DB involved in the research pattern, data collection and analyses, and the preparation and review of the manuscript. SL involved in move data collection, statistical analyses, and review of the manuscript. JB involved in project and inquiry design, recruitment, organisation, and data collection, and review of the manuscript. MW involved in the conception and organisation of the project including artist-Anthem coordination, research design, and review of the manuscript. SM-R involved in recruitment, data collection and review of the manuscript. LT involved in the formulation and organisation of the project, research design, review of the statistical analyses, and preparation and review of the manuscript.

Funding

This enquiry was funded by Anthem Records, a grant to LT from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (435-2016-1442), and a grant to MW from the Canadian Foundation for Innovation (30524).

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absenteeism of whatever commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We thank Ian Fletcher Thornley and his band for their generosity in participating in this study. We thank Andy Curran of Canticle Records for collaborating with the Digital Music Lab and coordinating the launch of the Secrets album at the LIVELab. We thank Dave Thompson and Ranil Sonnadara for their assist on sound and lighting, and for their assistance in executing the concert. We are grateful to Alex Zaranek, Research Assistant in the Digital Music Lab, for creating the video "Lightning Encephalon" shown within the live concert; Mike Noseworthy recorded the MRI data used to render the 3D brain in the video. We also thank the many volunteers for their help throughout the concerts. Finally, we thank the many participants for volunteering their time.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be constitute online at: https://world wide web.frontiersin.org/articles/x.3389/fpsyg.2018.02682/full#supplementary-textile

Footnotes

1. ^ Diddled Broad Open was offset released in 1997. The containing anthology accomplished double platinum sales condition (CRIA) and itself achieved a peak position of #8 on the Canadian stone charts.
2. ^ http://LIVELab.mcmaster.ca
3. ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0h-Js1KtQa4

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Source: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02682/full